1. Introduction to the organization of multicellular vascular plants. Arrangements of cells into tissues and organs. The concept of meristems as the basis of a continuous development in plants. 2. The principle and the different types of interactions in a multicellular organism. Cell types and their mutual associations. Primary, secondary cell wall, its architecture and modes of expansion. 3. Basic types of tissues, structural and functional classification to surface, conductive and basal tissues. Anatomical organizing of the parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. Structure of the cell wall, physiological and metabolic parameters, and the basic functions of each type of tissues along to their distribution in the plant organism. 4. Surface tissues. The arrangement of epidermal cells, their basic functions. Specialized epidermal cells above and below ground parts of the plant: stomata, trichomes, external secretory and defensive structures. Cell differentiation in the root epidermis, the differentiation of root hairs and their specialized type of growth. 5. Vascularization as a phylogenetic factor. The basic organization of vascular tissues. Xylem, cell types, primary and secondary xylem. Differentiation of tracheids and tracheal elements, degradation of the primary cell wall and programmed cell death. Phloem, types and specialization of phloem cells. The structure and differentiation of sieve tube elements and accompanying cells of flowering plants, sieve cells in gymnosperms. Vascular cambium, structure, organization, and seasonal changes in activity. Formation of secondary vascular tissues. 6. Meristems. Differentiation of apical meristems, their embryonic origin. Apical meristem organization and cyto-histological zonation, maintaining identity and continuity, apical initials. Vegetative meristem, origin and establishment of leaf primordia and lateral shoots. Primary tissues of the stem, primary and secondary growth. Anatomical and histological structure of leaves. 7. The organization of the root vertex. Basic radial and longitudinal zonation. Zones of cell proliferation, expansion and differentiation. Growing tip, root cap and the primary apical meristems. Specification of cell lines. The primary root growth and secondary thickening. Root branching. Establishment and development of lateral roots, types of root systems. 8. Embryogenesis and plant sexual reproduction. Vegetative and generative cycles of seed plants, the term sporophyte and gametophyte. The basic structural and functional organization of the generative organs of plants. 9. The development of gametes I. The male gametophyte, microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis. The development and structure of the stamens and anthers. The stages of pollen differentiation, regulation of meiosis and cytokinesis, tapetum. Pollen grain. 10. The development of gametes II. The female gametophyte, macrosporogenesis and macrogametogenesis. The structure of the pistil, stigma and stylus, development and organization of the carpels. Embryonic sac and egg in angiosperms, the organization of the embryonic sac. 11. Pollination and fertilization. Interaction of pollen with the stigma, pollen germination and pollen tube growth. Compatible and incompatible reactions. Transport of sperm cells to the female gametophyte. Double fertilization in angiosperms. 12. The development of the embryo. Zygote, proembryo, suspensor, differentiation. Endosperm, structure, functions, types. Structure of seeds, dormancy. Embryogenesis in monocots and dicots.
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