1. Amino acids - classification, chemical properties, dissociation of functional groups, dissociation constant, and isoelectric point. General reactions of amino acids. Chromatographic separation. Peptides, peptide bond, torsion angles, nomenclature, sequence analysis, and peptide synthesis. Important natural and synthetic peptides. 2. Classification and biological functions of proteins. Ramachandran plot. Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary protein structure. Structural domains and interactions stabilizing protein structure. Determination and prediction of protein structure. Protein purification. Chromatographic, electrophoretic, and centrifugation methods. 3. Thermodynamics and kinetics of enzyme reactions. Enzyme nomenclature and catalytic mechanisms. Lock-and-key theory and induced-fit theory. Michaelis-Menten equation and its linearization. Parameters Km, Vmax, kcat, and kcat/Km. Allosteric enzymes, regulation of enzyme activity, and enzyme applications. Reversible and irreversible inhibition. 4. Coenzymes, cofactors, and prosthetic groups. Relationship between coenzymes and vitamins. Coenzymes of oxidoreductases (NAD, NADP, FAD, FMN) and transferases (CoA, TPP, ATP, lipoic acid). High-energy compounds. B-complex vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins and their biological roles. 5. Monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glycogen, starch, and glycoproteins. Lipid classification, fatty acids, triacylglycerols, phospholipids, and glycolipids. Cholesterol, lipoproteins, and biological membranes. Structure of DNA and RNA, ribozymes, and microRNAs. 6. Metabolism. Primary and secondary metabolism. Catabolism, anabolism, and metabolomics. Inborn errors of metabolism. Glycolysis - individual phases, enzymes, and regulation. The Warburg effect. 7. Gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway. Major reactions, enzymes, and regulatory mechanisms. Metabolic shuttles and their significance. The Cori cycle and the alanine cycle. Lactate dehydrogenase and its isoenzymes. Variants of the pentose phosphate pathway according to cellular needs. 8. Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and the citric acid cycle. Formation of acetyl-CoA, reactions, and enzymes. Regulation of the citric acid cycle. Anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions. The glyoxylate cycle and its significance. 9. Mitochondria and aerobic metabolism. The Pasteur effect and redox potential. The respiratory chain, electron transport, and protein complexes of the inner mitochondrial membrane. Chemiosmotic theory, proton gradient, proton motive force, and oxidative phosphorylation. Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation. 10. Photosynthesis. Chloroplast structure and the significance of photosynthesis. Light reactions, photosynthetic pigments, and the Z-scheme. Photolysis of water, ATP and NADPH formation. The Calvin cycle and carbohydrate synthesis. Photorespiration. Features of photosynthesis in C3, C4, and CAM plants. 11. Transport of fatty acids from adipose tissue and the intestine. The carnitine shuttle. Fatty acid beta-oxidation, enzymes, and reactions. Ketone bodies and their significance. The citrate shuttle. Fatty acid biosynthesis, the role of ACP and fatty acid synthase. Cholesterol biosynthesis. Steroid hormones and corticosteroids. 12. Amino acid and nitrogen metabolism. Protein degradation, the proteasome, and ubiquitination. Proteolytic enzymes. The urea cycle. Glutamine and glutamate dehydrogenase. Amino acid catabolism and related metabolic disorders. Essential amino acids. Heme synthesis and degradation. Catecholamines and nitrogen fixation. 13. DNA replication, DNA polymerase, the replication fork, and Okazaki fragments. DNA ligase, telomeres, and telomerase. The cell cycle. Transcription and reverse transcription. The genetic code. Ribosomes and protein synthesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. tRNA, initiation, elongation, and termination factors. Inhibition of protein synthesis.
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